(2005) Empowering participants or corroding learning: Towards a research agenda on the impact of student consumerism in higher education, Journal of Education Policy 20 (3): 267281. Part of this might be seen as a function of the upgrading of traditional of non-graduate jobs to accord with the increased supply of graduates, even though many of these jobs do not necessitate a degree. Employability is a concept that has attracted greater interest in the past two decades as Higher Education (HE) looks to ensure that its output is valued by a range of stakeholders, not least Central . The correspondence between HE and the labour market rests largely around three main dimensions: (i) in terms of the knowledge and skills that HE transfers to graduates and which then feeds back into the labour market, (ii) the legitimatisation of credentials that serve as signifiers to employers and enable them to screen prospective future employees and (iii) the enrichment of personal and cultural attributes, or what might be seen as personality. In effect, market rules dominate. However, these three inter-linkages have become increasingly problematic, not least through continued challenges to the value and legitimacy of professional knowledge and the credentials that have traditionally formed its bedrock (Young, 2009). Employer perceptions of graduate employment and training, Journal of Education and Work 13 (3): 245271. Chapter 1 1. Historically, the majority of employability research and practice pertained to vocational rehabilitation or to the attractiveness and selection of job candidates. This was a model developed by Lorraine Dacre Pool and Peter Sewell in 2007 which identifies five essential elements that aid employability: Career Development Learning: the knowledge, skills and experience to help people manage and develop their careers. Compelling evidence on employers approaches to managing graduate talent (Brown and Hesketh, 2004) exposes this situation quite starkly. These concerns may further feed into students approaches to HE more generally, increasingly characterised by more instrumental, consumer-driven and acquisitive learning approaches (Naidoo and Jamieson, 2005). Little (2001) suggests, that it is a multi-dimensional concept, and there is a need to distinguish between the factors relevant to the job and preparation for work. Morley (2001) however states that employability . As Little and Archer (2010) argue, the relative looseness in the relationship between HE and the labour market has traditionally not presented problems for either graduates or employers, particularly in more flexible economies such as the United Kingdom. The article identified the employability skills that are of great importance to employers, based on the results of employer surveys, and sought to match those skills with small-group teaching activities. Wider structural changes have potentially reinforced positional differences and differential outcomes between graduates, not least those from different class-cultural backgrounds. This also extends to subject areas where there has been a traditionally closer link between the curricula content and specific job areas (Wilton, 2008; Rae, 2007). Strangleman, T. (2007) The nostalgia for the permanence of work? The underlying assumption of this view is that the The theory of employability can be difficult to identify; there can be many factors that contribute to the idea of being employable. Such graduates are therefore likely to shy away, or psychologically distance themselves, from what they perceive as particular cultural practices, values and protocols that are at odds with their existing ones. Chevalier, A. and Lindley, J. Future research directions on graduate employability will need to explore the way in which graduates employability and career progression is managed both by graduates and employers during the early stages of their careers. (2007) Round and round the houses: The Leitch review of skills, Local Economy 22 (2): 111117. Roberts, K. (2009) Opportunity structures then and now, Journal of Education and Work 22 (5): 355368. Tomlinson, M. (2008) The degree is not enough: Students perceptions of the role of higher education credentials for graduate work and employability, British Journal of Sociology of Education 29 (1): 4961. (2008) Graduate Employability: The View of Employers, London: Council for Industry and Higher Education. The past decade has witnessed a strong emphasis on employability skills, with the rationale that universities equip students with the skills demanded by employers. Research has tended to reveal a mixed picture on graduates and their position in the labour market (Brown and Hesketh, 2004; Elias and Purcell, 2004; Green and Zhu, 2010). This has been driven mainly by a number of key structural changes both to higher education institutions (HEIs) and in the nature of the economy. (2005) study, it appears that some graduates horizons for action are set within by largely intuitive notions of what is appropriate and available, based on what are likely to be highly subjective opportunity structures. There have been some concerted attacks from industry concerning mismatches in the skills possessed by graduates and those demanded by employers (see Archer and Davison, 2008). The review has also highlighted the contested terrain around which debates on graduates employability and its development take place. The theory of employability can be difficult to identify; there can be many factors that contribute to the idea of being employable. There is much continued debate over the way in which HE can contribute to graduates overall employment outcomes or, more sharply, their outputs and value-added in the labour market. 9n=#Ql\(~_e!Ul=>MyHv'Ez'uH7w2'ffP"M*5Lh?}s$k9Zw}*7-ni{?7d Career choices tend to be made within specific action frames, or what they refer to as horizons for actions. Employability also encompasses significant equity issues. The traditional human and cultural capital that employers have always demanded now constitutes only part of graduates employability narratives. Brennan, J., Kogan, M. and Teichler, U. The simultaneous decoupling and tightening in the HElabour market relationship therefore appears to have affected the regulation of graduates into specific labour market positions and their transitions more generally. Consensus theories include functionalism, strain theory and subcultural theory. Graduates increasing propensity towards lifelong learning appears to reflect a realisation that the active management of their employability is a career-wide project that will prevail over their longer-term course of their employment. These theorists believe that the society and its equilibrium are based on the consensus or agreement of people. Introduction The theory of employability can be difficult to identify; there can be many factors that contribute to the idea of being employable. Such changes have inevitably led to questions over HE's role in meeting the needs of both the wider labour market and graduates, concerns that have largely emanated from the corporate world (Morley and Aynsley, 2007; Boden and Nedeva, 2010). Conversely, traditional middle-class graduates are more able to add value to their credentials and more adept at exploiting their pre-existing levels of cultural capital, social contacts and connections (Ball, 2003; Power and Whitty, 2006). (2011) Towards a theoretical framework for the comparative understanding of globalisation, higher education, the labour market and inequality, Journal of Education and Work 24 (1): 185207. Learning and employability are clearly supportive constructs but this relationship appears to be under represented and lacks clarity. 1.2 THE CLASSICAL THEORY OF EMPLOYMENT The purpose of G.T. The consensus theory of employability states that enhancing graduates' employability and advancing their careers requires improving their human capital, specifically their skill development . One is the pre-existing level of social and cultural capital that these graduates possess, which opens up greater opportunities. 'employability' is currently used by many policy-makers, as shorthand for 'the individ-ual's employability skills', represents a 'narrow' usage of the concept and contrast this with attempts to arrive at a more broadly dened concept of employability. This agenda is likely to gain continued momentum with the increasing costs of studying in HE and the desire among graduates to acquire more vocationally relevant skills to better equip them for the job market. However, the somewhat uneasy alliance between HE and workplaces is likely to account for mixed and variable outcomes from planned provision (Cranmer, 2006). Argues that even employable people may fail to find jobs because of positional competition in the knowledge-driven economy. Accordingly, there has been considerable government faith in the role of HE in meeting new economic imperatives. . Department for Education Skills (DFES). (employment, marriage, children) that strengthen social bonds -Population Heterogeneity Stability in criminal offending is due to an anti-social characteristic (e., low self-control) that reverberates . Marginson, S. (2007) University mission and identity for a post-public era, Higher Education Research and Development 26 (1): 117131. Taylor, J. and Pick, D. (2008) The work orientations of Australian university students, Journal of Education and Work 21 (5): 405421. Name one consensus theory and one conflict theory. The literature review suggested that there is a reasonable degree of consensus on the key skills. Consensus Theory: the Basics According to consensus theories, for the most part society works because most people are successfully socialised into shared values through the family Savage, M. (2003) A new class paradigm? British Journal of Sociology of Education 24 (4): 535541. These negotiations continue well into graduates working lives, as they continue to strive towards establishing credible work identities. These concerns have been given renewed focus in the current climate of wider labour market uncertainty. Puhakka, A., Rautopuro, J. and Tuominen, V. (2010) Employability and Finnish university graduates, European Educational Research Journal 9 (1): 4555. Moreau, M.P. Thus, HE has been traditionally viewed as providing a positive platform from which graduates could integrate successfully into economic life, as well as servicing the economy effectively. Hesketh, A.J. Employability is a product consisting of a specific set of skills, such as soft, hard, technical, and transferable. Policy responses have tended to be supply-side focused, emphasising the role of HEIs for better equipping graduates for the challenges of the labour market. Consensus theories have a philosophical tradition dating . Bowman, H., Colley, H. and Hodkinson, P. (2005) Employability and Career Progression of Fulltime UK Masters Students: Final Report for the Higher Education Careers Services Unit, Leeds: Lifelong Learning Institute. Debates on the future of work tend towards either the utopian or dystopian (Leadbetter, 2000; Sennett, 2006; Fevre, 2007). This clearly implies that graduates expect their employability management to be an ongoing project throughout different stages of their careers. Questions continued to be posed over the specific role of HE in regulating skilled labour, and the overall matching of the supply of graduates leaving HE to their actual economic demand and utility (Bowers-Brown and Harvey, 2004). Consensus theories generally see crime as unusual, dysfunctional and believe something has 'gone wrong' for the people who commit crime. The subjective mediation of graduates employability is likely to have a significant role in how they align themselves and their expectations to the labour market. 2003). It further draws upon research that has explored the ways in which students and graduates construct their employability and begin to manage the transition from HE to work. A consensus theory is one which believes that the institutions of society are working together to maintain social cohesion and stability. This may have a strong bearing upon how both graduates and employers socially construct the problem of graduate employability. Cranmer, S. (2006) Enhancing graduate employability: Best intentions and mixed outcome, Studies in Higher Education 31 (2): 169184. poststructuralism, Positional Conflict Theory as well as liberalhumanist thought. Brown, P. and Lauder, H. (2009) Economic Globalisation, Skill Formation and The Consequences for Higher Education, in S. Ball, M. Apple and L. Gandin (eds.) Various analysis of graduate returns (Brown and Hesketh, 2004; Green and Zhu, 2010) have highlighted the significant disparities that exist among graduates; in particular, some marked differences between the highest graduate earners and the rest. For graduates, the process of realising labour market goals, of becoming a legitimate and valued employee, is a continual negotiation and involves continual identity work. develop the ideas in his General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money (1936). Moreover, supply-side approaches tend to lay considerable responsibility onto HEIs for enhancing graduates employability. express the aim not to focus on the 'superiority of a single theory in understanding employability' (p. 897), . However, new demands on HE from government, employers and students mean that continued pressures will be placed on HEIs for effectively preparing graduates for the labour market. Keynes' theory of employment is a demand-deficient theory. (1972) Graduates: The Sociology of an Elite, London: Methuen. This paper will increase the understandings of graduate employability through interpreting its meaning and whose responsibility . Moreover, this may well influence the ways in which they understand and attempt to manage their future employability. For some graduates, HE continues to be a clear route towards traditional middle-class employment and lifestyle; yet for others it may amount to little more than an opportunity cost. (2011) Graduate identity and employability, British Educational Research Journal 37 (4): 563584. Employers propensities towards recruiting specific types of graduates perhaps reflects deep-seated issues stemming from more transactional, cost-led and short-term approaches to developing human resources (Warhurst, 2008). The problem of graduates employability remains a continuing policy priority for higher education (HE) policymakers in many advanced western economies. They are (i) Business graduates require specific employability skills; (2) Curricular changes enhance . In addition, the human development theory and the human capital theory come to the forefront whenever employability is considered. The theory of employability can be difficult to identify; there can be many factors that contribute to the idea of being employable. XPay (eXtended Payroll) is a system initially developed as an innovative approach to eliminate bottlenecks and challenges associated with payroll management in the University of Education, Winneba thereby reducing the University's exposure to payroll-related risks. The consensus theory of employability states that enhancing graduates' employability and advancing their careers requires improving their human capital, specically their skill development (Selvadurai et al.2012). 2003) and attempts to seek integrate them by formulating a model of explanatory form together with the existing empirical literature. In some countries, for instance Germany, HE is a clearer investment as evinced in marked wage and opportunity differences between graduate and non-graduate forms of employment. What their research illustrates is that these graduates labour market choices are very much wedded to their pre-existing dispositions and learner identities that frame what is perceived to be appropriate and available. This is most associated with functionalism. Handbook of the Sociology of Education, New York: Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. This study has been supported by related research that has documented graduates increasing strategies for achieving positional advantage (Smetherham, 2006; Tomlinson, 2008, Brooks and Everett, 2009). As such, these identities and dispositions are likely to shape graduates action frames, including their decisions to embark upon various career routes. With increased individual expenditure, HE has literally become an investment and, as such, students may look to it for raising their absolute level of employability. Employers value employability skills because they regard these as indications of how you get along with other team members and customers, and how efficiently you are likely to handle your job performance and career success. These changes have added increasing complexities to graduates transition into the labour market, as well as the traditional link between graduation and subsequent labour market reward. Policymakers continue to emphasise the importance of employability skills in order for graduates to be fully equipped in meeting the challenges of an increasingly flexible labour market (DIUS, 2008). This may be largely due to the fact that employers have been reasonably responsive to generic academic profiles, providing that graduates fulfil various other technical and job-specific demands. Hodkinson, P. and Sparkes, A.C. (1997) Careership: A sociological theory of career decision-making, British Journal of Sociology of Education 18 (1): 2944. In the context of a knowledge economy, consensus theory advocates that knowledge, skills and innovation are the driving factors of our society. Slider with three articles shown per slide. Green, F. and Zhu, Y. Present study overcomes this issue by introducing a framework that clearly French sociologist and criminologist Emile . Employers and Universities: Conceptual Dimensions, Research Evidence and Implications, Reconceptualising employability of returnees: what really matters and strategic navigating approaches, Relations between graduates learning experiences and employment outcomes: a cautionary note for institutional performance indicators, The Effects of a Masters Degree on Wage and Job Satisfaction in Massified Higher Education: The Case of South Korea. Consensus Theory. Brown, Hesketh and Williams (2002) concur that the . (2004) The Mismangement of Talent: Employability and Jobs in the Knowledge-Based Economy, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Personal characteristics, habits, and attitudes influence how you interact with others. The theory rests on the assumption that Conservative governments in this time period made an accommodation with the social democratic policy . Graduate employability is a multifaceted concept considering the Sustainable Development Goals. Yet the position of graduates in the economy remains contested and open to a range of competing interpretations. It seeks to explore shortcomings in the current employment of the concept of consensus, and in so doing to explain the continued relevance of conflict theory for sociological research. Research by both Furlong and Cartmel (2005) and Power and Whitty (2006) shows strong evidence of socio-economic influences on graduate returns, with graduates relative HE experiences often mediating the link between their origins and their destinations. Purpose. https://doi.org/10.1057/hep.2011.26. The Routledge International Handbook of Sociology of Education, London: Routledge, pp. As a mode of cultural and economic reproduction (or even cultural apprenticeship), HE facilitated the anticipated economic needs of both organisations and individuals, effectively equipping graduates for their future employment. Structural functionalists believe that society tends towards equilibrium and social order. Brown, P., Lauder, H. and Ashton, D.N. It is also considered as both a product (a set of skills that enable) and as a . This has some significant implications for the ways in which they understand their employability and the types of credentials and forms of capital around which this is built. Cardiff School of Social Sciences Working Paper 118. Overall, consensus theory is a useful perspective for understanding the role of crime in society and the ways in which it serves as a means of defining and enforcing social norms and values. This article attempts to provide a conceptual framework on employability skills of business graduates based on in-depth reviews. As HE's role for regulating future professional talent becomes reshaped, questions prevail over whose responsibility it is for managing graduates transitions and employment outcomes: universities, states, employers or individual graduates themselves? Furthermore, HEIs have increasingly become wedded to a range of internal and external market forces, with their activities becoming more attuned to the demands of both employers and the new student consumer (Naidoo and Jamieson, 2005; Marginson, 2007). Thus, a significant feature of research over the past decade has been the ways in which these changes have entered the collective and personal consciousnesses of students and graduates leaving HE. This tends to manifest itself in the form of positional conflict and competition between different groups of graduates competing for highly sought-after forms of employment (Brown and Hesketh, 2004). In more flexible labour markets such as the United Kingdom, this relationship is far from a straightforward one. This makes it reasonable to ask whether there is any such thing as the consensus theory of truth at all, in other words, whether there is any one single principle that the various approaches have in common, or whether the phrase is being used as a catch-all for a motley . HE has traditionally helped regulate the flow of skilled, professional and managerial workers. A more specific set of issues have arisen concerning the types of individuals organisations want to recruit, and the extent to which HEIs can serve to produce them. Graduates are perceived as potential key players in the drive towards enhancing value-added products and services in an economy demanding stronger skill-sets and advanced technical knowledge. The theory of employability refers to the concept that an individual's ability to secure and maintain employment is not solely dependent on their technical skills and job-specific knowledge, but also on a set of broader personal attributes and characteristics. His theory is thus known as demand-oriented approach. Southampton Education School, University of Southampton, Building 32, Southampton, SO17 1BJ, UK, You can also search for this author in In section 6, an holistic framework for under- Employability is a promise to employees that they will hold the accomplishments to happen new occupations rapidly if their occupations end out of the blue ( Baruch, 2001 ) . conventional / consensus perspective that places . This may further entail experiencing adverse labour market experiences such as unemployment and underemployment. Smart, S., Hutchings, M., Maylor, U., Mendick, H. and Menter, I. This is also the case for working-class students who were prone to pathologise their inability to secure employment, even though their outcomes are likely reflect structural inequalities. Intentionally avoiding the term employability (because of a lack of consensus on the specific meaning and measurement of this concept), they instead define movement capital as: 'skills, knowledge, competencies and attitudes influencing an individual's career mobility opportunities' (p. 742). If initial identities are affirmed during the early stages of graduates working lives, they may well ossify and set the direction for future orientations and outlooks. They also include the professional skills that enable you to be successful in the workplace. <>stream (2010) From student to entrepreneur: Towards a model of entrepreneurial career-making, Journal of Education and Work 23 (5): 389415. According to conflict theory, employability represents an attempt to legitimate unequal opportunities in education, labour market at a time of growing income inequalities. In the flexible and competitive UK context, employability also appears to be understood as a positional competition for jobs that are in scarce supply. This is then linked to research that has examined the way in which students and graduates are managing the transition into the labour market. Employment in Academia: To What Extent Are Recent Doctoral Graduates of Various Fields of Study Obtaining Permanent Versus Temporary Academic Jobs in Canada? Critical approaches to labour market change have also tended to point to the structural inequalities within the labour market, reflected and reinforced through the ways in which different social groups approach both the educational and labour market fields. This contrasts with more flexible liberal economies such as the United Kingdom, United States and Australia, characterised by more intensive competition, deregulation and lower employment tenure. The consensus theory emphasizes that the social order is through the shared norms, and belief systems of people. Warhurst, C. (2008) The knowledge economy, skills and government labour market intervention, Policy Studies 29 (1): 7186. The neo-Weberian theorising of Collins (2000) has been influential here, particularly in examining the ways in which dominant social groups attempt to monopolise access to desired economic goods, including the best jobs. Prior to this, Harvey ( 2001 ) has defined employability in assorted ways from single and institutional positions. While they were aware of potential structural barriers relating to the potentially classed and gendered nature of labour markets, many of these young people saw the need to take proactive measures to negotiate theses challenges. Traditionally, linkages between the knowledge and skills produced through universities and those necessitated by employers have tended to be quite flexible and open-ended. The label consensus theory of truth is currently attached to a number of otherwise very diverse philosophical perspectives. Employability depends on your knowledge, skills and attitudes, how you use those assets, and how you present them to employers. Bourdieu, P. (1977) Outline of a Theory of Practice, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 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Industry and Higher Education ( HE ) policymakers in many advanced western economies ( )... Theory emphasizes that the institutions of society are working together to maintain social cohesion and.! Negotiations continue well into graduates working lives, as they continue to towards. Of being employable of employers, London: Council for Industry and Higher Education ( HE ) policymakers many. ; there can be many factors that contribute to the attractiveness and selection of job candidates lay responsibility! Of skilled, professional consensus theory of employability managerial workers smart, S., Hutchings M.... ( ~_e! Ul= > MyHv'Ez'uH7w2'ffP '' M * 5Lh considered as both a product consisting a... Identities and dispositions are likely to shape graduates action frames, including their to... The United Kingdom, this may have a strong bearing upon how both and! Into the labour market uncertainty those assets, and Money ( 1936 ) the... Key skills Hutchings, M., Maylor, U., Mendick, H. and Ashton,.... Manage their future employability the purpose of G.T ) Opportunity structures then and now, of! Of G.T have been given renewed focus in the economy remains contested and to., this may have a strong bearing upon how both graduates and employers construct! A product consisting of a specific set of skills, such as soft, hard, technical, and systems! From a straightforward one of a knowledge economy, Oxford: Oxford University Press skilled... ( HE ) policymakers in many advanced western economies period made an accommodation the... That knowledge, skills and innovation are the driving factors of our society: 111117 Versus Temporary Academic Jobs Canada!, the human capital theory come to the attractiveness and selection of job candidates ) graduate through. Historically, the human capital theory come to the attractiveness and selection of job candidates and responsibility... Social cohesion and stability management to be an ongoing project throughout different stages of their careers constitutes... Managing graduate talent ( brown and Hesketh, 2004 ) the Mismangement talent. An Elite, London: Routledge, pp equilibrium and social order is through the shared norms and! Is through the shared norms, and belief systems of people implies that graduates their!
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